Kedah

Kedah lies on the western coast of the Malay Peninsula, where rivers descend from forested hills to the Strait of Malacca. Its fertile plain and coastal ports supported a long history of exchange across the strait. Older Hindu and Buddhist remains in the Bujang Valley testify to Kedah's place in maritime networks long before the emergence of its Muslim sultanate.

Kedah's rulers maintained relations with Siam to the north and with European merchants seeking access to the strait. In 1786 the sultan leased Penang to the British East India Company, followed by a strip of mainland in 1800. Relations with Siam deteriorated, and in 1821 Siamese forces invaded Kedah, driving Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin into exile. The occupation brought resistance, including a major revolt in 1831, as the sultan's supporters sought to recover the state.

The later city of Alor Setar lies here.