Kāiyuán

Kaiyuan stood at a key point in the Ming frontier economy of northern Liaodong. Its horse markets brought officials and farming communities into exchange with Jurchen and Mongol neighbours. Three named market approaches structured this commerce: Xin'an Gate served Mongol traders, while Zhenbei and Guangshun served the Jurchens. The market was therefore a set of regulated frontier institutions rather than an unrestricted meeting of merchants.

Ming appointments and imperial documents helped determine access. Leaders received edicts that could serve as credentials for trade and tribute, making political recognition commercially valuable. Official purchases initially concentrated on horses and military equipment. Private buying and selling followed the government market, carrying a wider range of necessities and forest products. Jurchen traders brought ginseng, sable pelts and other northern goods, while seeds, salt, silk and cloth moved in return. These arrangements made Kaiyuan a place where commerce and diplomacy were conducted together, and where control of documents, passes and recognised leadership affected the livelihoods of communities beyond the walls.