Egypt

Egypt became an Ottoman province after the conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517, but Mamluk leaders retained considerable power. Napoleon's army invaded in 1798 and was expelled by British and Ottoman forces in 1801.

In 1805 the Ottoman commander Muhammad Ali became governor and made Cairo the centre of a largely autonomous state. He crushed the Mamluks, reformed the army and economy, and conquered Sudan. In 1831 his forces invaded Ottoman Syria, beginning a war with the sultan that ended in 1833.